Published Research · What's Known
The science on veterans & psychedelics, by substance.
Every published study we could find conducted specifically in veterans, active-duty service members, or Special Operations Forces — grouped by substance, landmark trials first. Looking to join a trial instead? That's the studies directory. Want the biology — how each substance acts on the brain? See the neurochemistry breakdown.
By Substance
Veteran research library
Tap a substance to open its research. Where a substance has no veteran study, we say so — and we don't dress up trials that came back negative or thin.
How to read it: landmark study first within each substance.
Veteran / SOF studied in veterans or service members ·
Early / limited small, uncontrolled, or mixed results. Recruiting trials live in the studies directory. Educational only — not medical advice.
Who's missing from these studies. Most of this research was run in mostly-male, combat- and Special-Operations cohorts. Women veterans, National Guard and Reserve members, survivors of military sexual trauma (MST), and those whose trauma wasn't combat-related remain underrepresented — so apply these results to those groups with extra caution. The neurochemistry is not sex-specific, but the human outcomes may not transfer cleanly.
MDMA+
The deepest psychedelic evidence base for PTSD and trauma-related symptoms. The foundational veteran/first-responder trial is positive and durable, and a wave of veteran-specific trials is now recruiting.
Veteran / first responder
Active-dose MDMA-assisted therapy produced large PTSD reductions in veterans, firefighters, and police, held at 12 months (Phase 2, n = 26).
Mithoefer, M. C., Mithoefer, A. T., Feduccia, A. A., Jerome, L., Wagner, M., Wymer, J., Holland, J., Hamilton, S., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Emerson, A., & Doblin, R. (2018). MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD in military veterans, firefighters, and police officers. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(6), 486–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30135-4
Veteran — qualitative
At 1-year follow-up of that cohort, all participants reported lasting personal benefits beyond symptom scores (n = 19).
Barone, W., Beck, J., Mitsunaga-Whitten, M., & Perl, P. (2019). Perceived benefits of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy beyond symptom reduction. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(2), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2019.1580805
Veteran — attitudes
VA-enrolled veterans were hopeful about MDMA-assisted therapy but held real concerns and misconceptions, pointing to a need for clearer education (n = 30).
Earleywine, M., Holley, C., MacConnel, H., & Farmer, S. (2025). Questions and concerns about MDMA-assisted therapy in veterans with PTSD symptoms. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2025.2570938
Multiple veteran/active-duty MDMA trials are recruiting now. See them in the studies directory →
Psilocybin+
The first veteran psilocybin trials have now reported — strong early signals for treatment-resistant depression, with effects that tend to fade across a year. Larger VA trials are underway.
Veteran
In the first psilocybin trial run specifically in veterans, a single 25-mg dose produced 60% response and 53% remission in severe treatment-resistant depression at 3 weeks (open-label, n = 15).
Ellis, S., Bostian, C., Feng, W., Fischer, E., Schwartz, G., Eisen, K., Lean, M., Conlan, E., Ostacher, M., Aaronson, S., & Suppes, T. (2024). Single-dose psilocybin for U.S. military veterans with severe treatment-resistant depression — A first-in-kind open-label pilot study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 369, 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.133
Veteran — long-term
At 12 months, benefits were significant but waned after ~6–9 months (40% sustained response).
Ellis, S., Bostian, C., Donnelly, A., Feng, W., Eisen, K., Lean, M., Conlan, E., Ostacher, M., Aaronson, S., & Suppes, T. (2025). Long-term outcomes of single-dose psilocybin for U.S. military veterans with severe treatment-resistant depression — 12-month data. Journal of Affective Disorders, 389, 119655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.119655
Veteran — secondary analysis
The same cohort improved in anxiety, quality of life, functioning, and PTSD symptoms.
Kelly, C. M., Fradet, M., Bostian, C. M., Donnelly, A., Ellis, S., Ostacher, M., Aaronson, S., & Suppes, T. (2026). Changes in anxiety, quality of life, and functioning following psilocybin-assisted therapy in veterans with treatment-resistant depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 412, 122063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2026.122063
Veteran — TBI retreat
At a psilocybin retreat, veterans with a history of TBI showed reduced PTSD and depression with normalized resting EEG activity (observational, n = 21).
Blest-Hopley, G., Pasculli, G., Ruffell, S. G. D., Tsang, W., Emmanuel, O., Pate, K. M., Kettner, H., Roseman, L., Erritzoe, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. (2025). Improved mental health outcomes and normalised spontaneous EEG activity in veterans reporting a history of traumatic brain injuries following participation in a psilocybin retreat. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 16, 1594307. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1594307
Veteran — protocol
A published protocol for an open-label psilocybin-for-PTSD pilot in veterans. Results not yet reported.
Davis, A. K., Levin, A. W., Nagib, P. B., Armstrong, S. B., & Lancelotta, R. L. (2023). Study protocol of an open-label proof-of-concept trial examining the safety and clinical efficacy of psilocybin-assisted therapy for veterans with PTSD. BMJ Open, 13(5), e068884. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2022-068884
More veteran psilocybin trials are recruiting, including a multi-site VA Phase 3. See the studies directory →
Ketamine & esketamine+
FDA-approved and available across the VA for depression. For PTSD the veteran evidence is genuinely mixed — the largest veteran RCT was negative, while smaller real-world series are more encouraging.
Veteran / active-duty
In the largest ketamine-for-PTSD trial in military populations, repeated IV ketamine did not beat placebo on PTSD (it did rapidly improve depression) (RCT, n = 158).
Abdallah, C. G., Roache, J. D., Gueorguieva, R., Averill, L. A., Young-McCaughan, S., Shiroma, P. R., … Krystal, J. H. (2022). Dose-related effects of ketamine for antidepressant-resistant symptoms of PTSD in veterans and active duty military. Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(8), 1574–1581. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-022-01266-9
Veteran — real-world
In VA clinic practice, intranasal esketamine reduced both depression and PTSD symptoms (retrospective, n = 35).
Artin, H., Bentley, S., Mehaffey, E., Liu, F. X., Sojourner, K., Bismark, A. W., Printz, D., Lee, E. E., Martis, B., De Peralta, S., Baker, D. G., Mishra, J., & Ramanathan, D. (2022). Effects of intranasal (S)-ketamine on veterans with co-morbid treatment-resistant depression and PTSD: A retrospective case series. EClinicalMedicine, 48, 101439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101439
Veteran — combined with therapy
A VA pilot found ketamine paired with prolonged exposure therapy feasible, with preliminary benefit.
Shiroma, P. R., Thuras, P., Wels, J., Erbes, C., Kehle-Forbes, S., & Polusny, M. (2020). A proof-of-concept study of subanesthetic intravenous ketamine combined with prolonged exposure therapy among veterans with PTSD. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 81(6), 20l13406. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.20l13406
Combat veterans
Six high-dose infusions significantly reduced depression and PTSD in combat veterans (observational, n = 30).
Ross, C., Jain, R., Bonnett, C. J., & Wolfson, P. (2019). High-dose ketamine infusion for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in combat veterans. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 31(4), 271–279. pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31675388
Veteran — comparison
Veterans switched from intranasal esketamine to IV racemic ketamine saw larger reductions in depression and PTSD on the IV form (retrospective, n = 15).
Bentley, S., Artin, H., Mehaffey, E., Liu, F., Sojourner, K., Bismark, A., Printz, D., Lee, E. E., Martis, B., De Peralta, S., Baker, D. G., Mishra, J., & Ramanathan, D. (2022). Response to intravenous racemic ketamine after switch from intranasal (S)-ketamine in veterans. Pharmacotherapy, 42(3), 272–279. https://doi.org/10.1002/phar.2664
Veteran — review
A meta-analysis restricted to military populations concluded ketamine reduces pain, depression, and PTSD symptoms — though it pools heterogeneous studies (11 studies).
Liu, J. J. W., Ein, N., Gervasio, J., Baker, C., Plouffe, R., Wanklyn, S., Burhan, A. M., Lau, B., Abreu, E., Wasiuta, T., Nazarov, A., & Richardson, J. D. (2024). Ketamine in the effective management of chronic pain, depression, and PTSD for veterans: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 15, 1338581. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1338581
Ibogaine+
The most striking veteran results to date — but from open-label studies without control groups, and with real cardiac risk the protocols actively manage.
Veteran / SOF
A single magnesium-ibogaine treatment was followed by roughly 88% reductions in PTSD and 87% in depression at one month, with no serious cardiac events (open-label, n = 30 SOF veterans with TBI).
Cherian, K. N., Keynan, J. N., Anker, L., Faerman, A., Brown, R. E., Shamma, A., Keynan, O., Coetzee, J. P., Batail, J.-M., Phillips, A., Bassano, N. J., Sahlem, G. L., Inzunza, J., Millar, T., Dickinson, J., Rolle, C. E., Keller, J., Adamson, M., Kratter, I. H., & Williams, N. R. (2024). Magnesium–ibogaine therapy in veterans with traumatic brain injuries. Nature Medicine, 30(2), 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02705-w
Veteran / SOF (with 5-MeO-DMT)
In a Mexico clinical program, ibogaine followed by 5-MeO-DMT produced large improvements in PTSD, depression, anxiety, and cognition, sustained to 6 months (prospective open-label, n = 86).
Davis, A. K., Xin, Y., Sepeda, N. D., & Averill, L. A. (2023). Open-label study of consecutive ibogaine and 5-MeO-DMT assisted-therapy for trauma-exposed male Special Operations Forces veterans. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 49(5), 587–596. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2023.2220874
Veteran / SOF — earlier data
The earlier retrospective survey of that program reported large reductions in suicidal ideation, PTSD, depression, and anxiety (n = 51).
Davis, A. K., Averill, L. A., Sepeda, N. D., Barsuglia, J. P., & Amoroso, T. (2020). Psychedelic treatment for trauma-related psychological and cognitive impairment among U.S. Special Operations Forces veterans. Chronic Stress, 4, 2470547020939564. https://doi.org/10.1177/2470547020939564
Three further papers analyze the same 30-veteran Stanford cohort: Brown et al. (2025), mystical-experience intensity predicted PTSD improvement (J. Affective Disorders, 395, 120722); Sridhar et al. (2026), fMRI connectivity changes (Biol. Psychiatry: CNNI, 11(6)); Geoly et al. (2026), increased cortical thickness and ~1.3-year drop in predicted brain age (iScience, 29(3)).
Ibogaine carries documented cardiac risk (QT prolongation / arrhythmia); these protocols pair it with magnesium to reduce that risk. Ibogaine is Schedule I in the U.S.; veterans who pursue it generally travel abroad.
5-MeO-DMT+
No standalone veteran trial of 5-MeO-DMT exists as of 2026. The only veteran data come from programs that pair it with ibogaine — see Davis et al. (2023) and Davis et al. (2020) under Ibogaine.
Ayahuasca / DMT+
A small combat-veteran case series and naturalistic retreat data are encouraging — but small and uncontrolled, so read the magnitudes cautiously.
Combat veterans
7 of 8 combat veterans showed meaningful PTSD improvement after a 3-day ayahuasca retreat (5 of 7 maintained at 3 months). A 2024 published correction lowered the original severity claims.
Weiss, B., Dinh-Williams, L.-A. L., Beller, N., Raugh, I. M., Strauss, G. P., & Campbell, W. K. (2023). Ayahuasca in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Mixed-methods case series evaluation in military combat veterans. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 16(Suppl 3), S718–S722. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001625 (correction: 10.1037/tra0001730)
Veteran — retreats
Across naturalistic retreats, both ayahuasca and psilocybin improved PTSD, depression, anxiety, and sleep; ayahuasca showed the strongest PTSD effect (observational, n = 58).
Calnan, M., Blest-Hopley, G., Busch, C., Adams, M., Ruffell, S. G. D., Piper, T., Roseman, L., Kettner, H., & Carhart-Harris, R. (2025). Exploring the therapeutic effects of psychedelics administered to military veterans in naturalistic retreat settings. Brain and Behavior, 15(7), e70660. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.70660
Foundational (not patient data): Nielson & Megler (2014), a theoretical chapter proposing ayahuasca as a candidate PTSD therapy. No veteran trials of synthetic/IV DMT exist as of 2026.
LSD+
No veteran-, active-duty-, or SOF-specific human trials of LSD exist as of 2026. The modern LSD evidence base is general-population and early-stage (chiefly anxiety).
Cannabis+
The one randomized, placebo-controlled trial of cannabis for PTSD was done in veterans — and it did not beat placebo. Worth knowing before relying on it.
Veteran
Across three cannabis preparations, none outperformed placebo on PTSD symptoms over three weeks; all groups improved and cannabis was generally well tolerated (crossover RCT, n = 80).
Bonn-Miller, M. O., Sisley, S., Riggs, P., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Wang, J. B., Loflin, M. J. E., Shechet, B., Hennigan, C., Matthews, R., Emerson, A., & Doblin, R. (2021). The short-term impact of 3 smoked cannabis preparations versus placebo on PTSD symptoms: A randomized cross-over clinical trial. PLOS ONE, 16(3), e0246990. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246990
The broader veteran cannabis literature is mostly observational use-prevalence research rather than controlled efficacy trials.
Legal & Policy Status
Where things stand
Current as of June 2026. This moves fast — treat it as a starting point, not legal advice.
- MDMA is not FDA-approved. In August 2024 the FDA declined the MDMA-assisted therapy application for PTSD and requested another Phase 3 trial. MDMA remains Schedule I.
- Federal direction is shifting. An April 2026 executive order directed faster FDA/DEA review and access pathways for psychedelic treatments, but did not reschedule or legalize any substance.
- The VA now funds psychedelic research. Since December 2024 the VA has funded and expanded MDMA and psilocybin trials for PTSD at multiple facilities. Access is research-only.
- Two states offer supervised access. Oregon (psilocybin services since 2023) and Colorado (Natural Medicine program, 2025–2026) allow regulated, supervised use for adults 21+.
- Ketamine and esketamine are legal and available for treatment-resistant depression (esketamine is FDA-approved; not for PTSD). Psilocybin, MDMA, LSD, DMT/ayahuasca, 5-MeO-DMT, and ibogaine remain Schedule I federally.
Ready to take the next step? Find a study.
Our directory lists every vetted trial recruiting veterans right now, linked straight to the research team.
Browse studies seeking veterans →